Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Original Article
  • Published:

Variability in the take-home pathway: Farmworkers and non-farmworkers and their children

Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology volume 24, pages 522–531 (2014)Cite this article

Subjects

Abstract

Organophosphate pesticides (OPs) are related to ill health among adults, including farmworkers who are exposed to OPs as part of their regular work. Children of both farmworkers and non-farmworkers in agricultural communities may also be affected by pesticide exposure. Study groups of 100 farmworkers with a referent child (aged 2–6 years) and 100 non-farmworkers with a referent child were recruited to participate in three data collection periods over the course of a year. At each collection, participants provided three urine samples within 5 days, and homes and vehicles were vacuumed to collect pesticide residues in dust. In thinning and harvest seasons, farmworkers and their children had higher dimethyl urinary metabolites than non-farmworkers and their children. During the non-spray season, the urinary metabolites levels decreased among farmworkers to a level comparable to that of non-farmworkers. Farmworkers consistently had higher pesticide residues in their home and vehicle dust. Differences exist between farmworkers and non-farmworkers in urinary metabolites, and the differences extended throughout the agricultural seasons.OP metabolites are seen at much higher levels for farmworkers and their children than for non-farmworkers and their children during agricultural seasons when OPs are in use. These metabolite levels were significantly higher than the nationwide NHANES IV survey and up to 10-fold higher than other rural agricultural studies.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Access options

Buy this article

  • Purchase on Springer Link
  • Instant access to full article PDF
Buy now

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Barr DB, Bravo R, Weerasekera G, Caltabiano LM, Whitehead RD, Jr., Olsson AO et al. Concentrations of dialkyl phosphate metabolites of organophosphorus pesticides in the U.S. population. Environ Health Perspect 2004; 112: 186–200.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  2. USEPA. Pesticide Industry Sales and Usage—2006 and 2007 Market Estimates. Office of Chemical Safety and Pollution Prevention, US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA): Washington, DC. 2011.

  3. USDA-NASS Data for Washington from the agricultural chemical use database, 2011 USDA-NASS, Washington, DC.

  4. USEPA Azinphos-methyl Phase-out 2009. Available from http://www.regulations.gov/#!docketDetail;D=EPA-HQ-OPP-2005-0061.

  5. USEPA Reregistration eligibility decision for chlorpyrifos. EPA 738-R-01-007; EPA: Washington, DC.

  6. USEPA Interim reregistration eligibility document for diazinon. EPA 738-R-04-006. EPA: Washington, DC.

  7. USEPA Interim reregistration eligibility document for azinphos-methyl. EPA: Washington, DC.

  8. McCauley LA, Anger WK, Keifer M, Langley R, Robson MG, Rohlman D . Studying health outcomes in farmworker populations exposed to pesticides. Environ Health Perspect 2006; 114: 953–960.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. Zahm SH, Blair A . Assessing the feasibility of epidemiologic research on migrant and seasonal farmworkers: an overview. Am J Ind Med 2001; 40: 487–489.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Zahm SH, Blair A, The Farmworker Epidemiology Research Group. Cancer feasibility studies among migrant farmworkers. Am J Ind Med 1997; 32: 301–302.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Kirkhorn SR, Schenker MB . Current health effects of agricultural work: respiratory disease, cancer, reproductive effects, musculoskeletal injuries, and pesticide-related illnesses. J Agric Saf Health 2002; 8: 199–214.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Mills PK, Yang R . Prostate cancer risk in California farm workers. J Occup Environ Med 2003; 45: 249–258.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Mills PK, Kwong S . Cancer incidence in the United Farmworkers of America (UFW), 1987–1997. Am J Ind Med 2001; 40: 596–603.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Beane Freeman LE, Bonner MR, Blair A, Hoppin JA, Sandler DP, Lubin JH et al. Cancer incidence among male pesticide applicators in the Agricultural Health Study cohort exposed to diazinon. Am J Epidemiol 2005; 162: 1070–1079.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Fritschi L, Benke G, Hughes AM, Kricker A, Turner J, Vajdic CM et al. Occupational exposure to pesticides and risk of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Am J Epidemiol 2005; 162: 849–857.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Colt JS, Stallones L, Cameron LL, Dosemeci M, Zahm SH . Proportionate mortality among US migrant and seasonal farmworkers in twenty-four states. Am J Ind Med 2001; 40: 604–611.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Andreotti G, Freeman LE, Hou L, Coble J, Rusiecki J, Hoppin JA et al. Agricultural pesticide use and pancreatic cancer risk in the Agricultural Health Study Cohort. Int J Cancer 2009; 124: 2495–2500.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  18. Thompson B, Coronado GD, Grossman JE, Puschel K, Solomon CC, Islas I et al. Pesticide take-home pathway among children of agricultural workers: study design, methods, and baseline findings. J Occup Environ Med 2003; 45: 42–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Thompson B, Coronado GD, Vigoren EM, Griffith WC, Fenske RA, Kissel JC et al. Para ninos saludables: a community intervention trial to reduce organophosphate pesticide exposure in children of farmworkers. Environ Health Perspect 2008; 116: 687–694.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  20. Coronado GD, Vigoren EM, Thompson B, Griffith WC, Faustman EM . Organophosphate pesticide exposure and work in pome fruit: evidence for the take-home pesticide pathway. Environ Health Perspect 2006; 114: 999–1006.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Quiros-Alcala L, Bradman A, Nishioka M, Harnly ME, Hubbard A, McKone TE et al. Pesticides in house dust from urban and farmworker households in California: an observational measurement study. Environ Health 2011; 10: 19 ahead of print 18 March 2011.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  22. Lozier MJ, Curwin B, Nishioka MG, Sanderson W . Determinants of atrazine contamination in the homes of commercial pesticide applicators across time. J Occup Environ Hyg 2012; 9: 289–297.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Bradman A, Castorina R, Barr DB, Chevrier J, Harnly ME, Eisen EA et al. Determinants of organophosphorus pesticide urinary metabolite levels in young children living in an agricultural community. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2011; 8: 1061–1083.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  24. Landrigan PJ, Goldman LR . Protecting children from pesticides and other toxic chemicals. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2011; 21: 119–120.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Moya J . Bearer CF, Etzel RA. Children's behavior and physiology and how it affects exposure to environmental contaminants. Pediatrics 2004; 113: 996–1006.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Fenske RA, Lu C, Barr D, Needham L . Children’s exposure to chlorpyrifos and parathion in an agricultural community in central Washington State. Environ Health Perspect 2002; 110: 549–553.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  27. Rao P, Quandt SA, Doran AM, Snively BM, Arcury TA . Pesticides in the homes of farmworkers: Latino mothers' perceptions of risk to their children's health. Health Educ Behav 2006; 34: 335–353.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Lambert WE, Lasarev M, Muniz J, Scherer J, Rothlein J, Santana J et al. Variation in organophosphate pesticide metabolites in urine of children living in agricultural communities. Environ Health Perspect 2005; 113: 504–508.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Wessels D, Barr DB, Mendola P . Use of biomarkers to indicate exposure of children to organophosphate pesticides: Implications for a longitudinal study of children's environmental health. Environ Health Perspect 2003; 111: 1939–1946.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. Daston G, Faustman E, Ginsberg G, Fenner-Crisp P, Ollin S, Sonawane B et al. A framework for assessing risks to children from exposure to environmental agents. Environ Health Perspect 2004; 112: 238–256.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. Mills PK, Zahm SH . Organophosphate pesticide residues in urine of farmworkers and their children in Fresno County, California. Am J Ind Med 2001; 40: 571–577.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Gonzalez V, Huen K, Venkat S, Pratt K, Xiang P, Harley KG et al. Cholinesterase and paraoxonase (PON1) enzyme activities in Mexican-American mothers and children from an agricultural community. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 2012; 22: 641–648.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. Huen K, Harley K, Brooks J, Hubbard A, Bradman A, Eskenazi B et al. Developmental changes in PON1 enzyme activity in young children and effects of PON1 polymorphisms. Environ Health Perspect 2009; 117: 1632–1638.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Eskenazi B, Huen K, Marks A, Harley KG, Bradman A, Barr DB et al. PON1 and neurodevelopment in children from the CHAMACOS study exposed to organophosphate pesticides in utero. Environ Health Perspect 2010; 118: 1775–1781.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. Furlong CE, Holland N, Richter RJ, Bradman A, Ho A, Eskenazi B . PON1 status of farmworker mothers and children as a predictor organophosphate sensitivity. Pharmacogenetics Genomics 2006; 16: 183–190.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Huen K, Bradman A, Harley K, Yousefi P, Boyd Barr D, Eskenazi B et al. Organophosphate pesticide levels in blood and urine of women and newborns living in an agricultural community. Environ Res 2012; 117: 8–16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  37. Thompson B, Coronado G, Puschel K, Allen E . Identifying constituents to participate in a project to control pesticide exposure in children of farmworkers. Environ Health Perspect 2001; 109: 443.

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Coronado GD, Vigoren EM, Griffith WC, Faustman EM, Thompson B . Organophosphate pesticide exposure among pome and non-pome farmworkers: a subgroup analysis of a community randomized trial. J Occup Environ Med 2009; 51: 500–509.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. American FactFinder Profile of General Population and Housing Characteristics: 2010 Demographic Profile Data 2010 March 22, 2013. Available from http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages.

  40. Odetokun MS, Montesano MA, Weerasekera G, Whitehead RD, Jr, Needham LL, Barr DB . Quantification of dialkylphosphate metabolites of organophosphorus insecticides in human urine using 96-well plate sample preparation and high-performance liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B 2010; 878: 2567–2574.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Curl CL, Fenske RA, Kissel JC, Shirai JH, Moate TF, Griffith W et al. Evaluation of take-home organophosphorus pesticide exposure among agricultural workers and their children. Environ Health Perspect 2002; 110: A787–A792.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. Westgard J Westgard Rules. 2012 [April 2, 2013]; Available from http://www.westgard.com/westgard-rules/.

  43. Lehmann EL, D’Abrera HJM . Nonparametrics: Statistical Methods Based on Ranks. Holden-Day Inc: San Francisco, CA, USA. 1975.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Benjamini Y, Hochberg Y . Controlling the false discovery rate: a practical and powerful approach to multiple testing. J R Stat Soc Ser B (Methodological) 1995; 57: 289–300.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Castorina R, Bradman A, McKone TE, Barr DB, Harnly ME, Eskenazi B . Cumulative organophosphate pesticide exposure and risk assessment among pregnant women living in an agricultural community: a case study from the CHAMACOS cohort. Environ Health Perspect 2003; 111: 1640–1648.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Koch D, Lu C, Fisker-Andersen J, Jolley L, Fenske RA . Temporal association of children’s pesticide exposure and agricultural spraying: report of a longitudinal biological monitoring study. Environ Health Perspect 2002; 110: 829–833.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  47. Griffith W, Curl CL, Fenske RA, Lu CA, Vigoren EM, Faustman EM . Organophosphate pesticide metabolite levels in pre-school children in an agricultural community: within- and between-child variability in a longitudinal study. Environ Res 2011; 111: 751–756.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  48. Coronado GD, Holte S, Vigoren E, Griffith WC, Barr DB, Faustman E et al. Organophosphate pesticide exposure and residential proximity to nearby fields: evidence for the drift pathway. J Occup Environ Med 2011; 53: 884–891.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  49. Centers for Disease Control NHANES 2003–2004 Laboratory Files 2003-2004 March 22, 2013. Available from www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/nhanes2003-2004/lab03_04.htm.

  50. McCauley LA, Beltran M, Phillips J, Lasarev M, Sticker D . The Oregon migrant farmworker community: an evolving model for participatory research. Environ Health Perspect 2001; 109: 449–455.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. Lu C, Fenske RA, Simcox NJ, Kalman D . Pesticide exposure of children in an agricultural community: evidence of household proximity to farmland and take home exposure pathways. Environ Res 2000; 84: 290–302.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Lu C, Kedan G, Fisker-Andersen J, Kissel JC, Fenske RA . Multipathway organophosphorus pesticide exposures of preschool children living in agricultural and nonagricultural communities. Environ Res 2004; 96: 283–289.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. National Children’s Study Improving the Health of America's Children2012 April 2, 2013. Available from https://www.nationalchildren'sstudy.gov/studylocations/Pages/default.aspx.

Download references

Acknowledgements

The research described in this article has been funded in part by the Environmental Protection Agency (Grant R826886) and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (Grant P01 ES09601), but it has not been subjected to either agency’s required peer and policy review. The article does not necessarily reflect the views of either agency, and no official endorsement should be inferred. We acknowledge the contribution of members of our Community Advisory Board in designing and carrying out this project. We acknowledge the contribution of our field staff in collecting the many samples required for this project.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA

    Beti Thompson

  2. Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA

    William C Griffith, Eric M Vigoren & Elaine M Faustman

  3. Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Atlanta, Georgia, USA

    Dana B Barr

  4. The Center for Health Research, Kaiser Permanente Northwest, Portland, Oregon, USA

    Gloria D Coronado

Authors
  1. Beti Thompson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. William C Griffith
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Dana B Barr
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Gloria D Coronado
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Eric M Vigoren
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Elaine M Faustman
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Beti Thompson.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Thompson, B., Griffith, W., Barr, D. et al. Variability in the take-home pathway: Farmworkers and non-farmworkers and their children. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 24, 522–531 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1038/jes.2014.12

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/jes.2014.12

Keywords

This article is cited by

Search

Advanced search

Quick links